1. Kathleen L. Endres and Therese L. Lueck, Women’s Periodicals in the United States (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1995), xiii–xiv; and Frank Luther Mott, A History of American Magazines, Vol. IV: 1885–1905 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1957), 353–368. On the influence of these magazines on gender politics, ideas of femininity, and modernity, see Ellen Gruber Garvey, The Adman in the Parlor: Magazines and the Gendering of Consumer Culture, 1880–1910 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); and Jennifer Scanlon, Inarticulate Longings: The Ladies’ Home Journal, Gender, and the Promises of Consumer Culture (New York: Routledge, 1995). Due to developments in printing and distribution, paper and printing costs dropped in the late 19th century. In addition, magazines became more dependent on advertising revenues than on subscribers. Combined, these trends led to a considerable reduction in price, to ten cents an issue, increasing magazine circulation into the middle class. By the 1900s, six women’s magazines—Ladies’ Home Journal, Pictorial Review, Delineator, Good Housekeeping, Women’s Home Companion, and McCall’s—reached over one million subscribers.
2. Martha H. Patterson, The American New Woman Revisited: A Reader, 1894–1930 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2008), 1–3, 25. The New Woman related to a series of movements and phenomena that were also associated with the “new” in this period: the New Negro, New Psychology, New South, New Empire, and New Morality. For general histories of the period that address the changes in women’s roles, see Alan Dawley, Struggles for Justice (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991); and Janet Floyd, ed., Becoming Visible: Women’s Presence in Late Nineteenth-Century America (New York: Rodopi, 2010).
3. For further discussion on the “True Woman,” see Barbara Welter, “The Cult of True Womanhood, 1820–1860,” American Quarterly 18.2 (Summer 1966): 151–174.
4. Patterson, The American New Woman Revisited, 1–2, 25.
5. Gibson was not the only artist who portrayed the New Woman. Other illustrators such as Harrison Fisher, Howard Chandler Christy, and Coles Phillips also created their versions of the “American Girl.” Yet, by the 1900s, the Gibson Girl’s popularity had surpassed its competitors, and it became one of the most marketed images of the time. For more on the other “Girls,” see Carolyn Kitch, The Girl on the Magazine Cover: The Origins of Visual Stereotypes in American Mass Media (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 37–74.
6. Kitch, The Girl on the Magazine Cover, 37–39; and Lois Banner, American Beauty (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1983), 158, 169.
7. G. S. H., “Fabrics, Gowns and Fashion Notes,” Ladies’ World (April 1902), 14; “‘Gibson Waist’—Chas J. Hirsch & Co. Advertisem*nt,” 1902, appears in Claudia Brush Kidwell and Margaret C. S. Christman, Suiting Everyone: The Democratization of Clothing in America (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1974), 139; and John Wanamaker Trade Catalogue (Fall–Winter, 1902–1903), cover.
8. Charles Dana Gibson, “The Weaker Sex II,” (1903); Banner, American Beauty, 165–166; Martha H. Patterson, Beyond the Gibson Girl: Reimagining the American New Woman, 1895–1915 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2005), 37–39; Kitch, The Girl on the Magazine Cover, 44; and Maria Elena Buszek, Pin-Up Grrrls: Feminism, Sexuality, Popular Culture (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006), 87–88.
9. Despite their small percentage, female students galvanized the American public because they broke old boundaries between the expected endeavors of men and women. Margaret A. Lowe, Looking Good: College Women and Body Image, 1875–1930 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), 4, 164.
10. Patricia Campbell Warner, When the Girls Came Out to Play: The Birth of American Sportswear (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2006), 177–195.
11. Nellie Bly, “Champion of Her Sex,” New York World, February 2, 1896, 10; and Lisa S. Strange and Robert S. Brown, “The Bicycle, Women’s Rights, and Elizabeth Cady Stanton,” Women Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal 31.5 (2002): 615–616.
12. Elizabeth Cady Stanton, “Shall Women Ride the Bicycle?” in Elizabeth Cady Stanton Papers, Reel 35: 1066–1073 (quote appears on p. 3 in her speech); and Evan Friss, The Cycling City: Bicycles and Urban America in the 1890s (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015), 161–163, 171–176.
13. John H. Adams Jr., “Rough Sketches: A Study of the Features of the New Negro Woman,” Voice of the Negro (August 1908): 324–325; and Davarian L. Baldwin, Chicago’s New Negroes: Modernity, the Great Migration and Black Urban Life (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007), 57.
14. Illustration of Ida B. Wells appeared in Irvine Garland Penn, The Afro-American Press and Its Editors (Springfield MA: Willey, 1891), 409.
15. Nan Enstad, Ladies of Labor, Girls of Adventure: Working Women, Popular Culture, and Labor Politics at the Turn of the Twentieth Century (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999), 50, 77–79, 82–83.
16. Enstad, Ladies of Labor, 8; and Susan Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl: Life and Labor in the Immigrant Generation (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990), 209–214.
17. Janet Zollinger Gale, Two Paths to Women’s Equality: Temperance, Suffrage, and the Origins of Modern Feminism (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1995), 45–46, 54–56, 63. The Woman’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), led by Frances Willard, was the largest women’s organization in the United States by the 1890s, drawing many women into political activism for the first time. While the main focus of the WCTU was prohibition and ending domestic violence, it hosted a range of social reforms, among them woman suffrage.
18. Nancy Cott, Grounding of Modern Feminism (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987), 3–8, 35–37.
19. Marie Jenney Howe, “Feminism,” The New Review (April 1914): 441.
20. Linda J. Lurnsden, Inez: The Life and Times of Inez Milholland (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004).
21. “Here is the New Woman,” New York World, August 18, 1895, 25.
22. Cott, Grounding of Modern Feminism, 15, 29–30.
23. Cott, Grounding of Modern Feminism, 23–25, 29–32; Margaret Finnegan, Selling Suffrage: Consumer Culture & Votes for Women (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999), 5–7; and Annelise Orleck, Common Sense and Little Fire: Women and Working-Class Politics in the United States, 1900–1965 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 87–88.
24. Rosalyn Terborg-Penn, African American Woman in the Struggle for the Vote, 1850–1920 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998), 2, 9–10; and Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, “In Politics to Stay: Black Women Leaders and Party Politics in the 1920s,” in Women, Politics, and Change, eds. Louise A. Tilly and Patricia Gurin (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1992), 201.
25. Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl, 215–216.
26. Marry Holland Kinkaid, “The Feminine Charms of the Woman Militant,” Good Housekeeping, February 1912, 146–147; Florence Flynn, “‘Attract and Allure,’ Cries the Suffragette,” New-York Tribune, April 30, 1911, C7; and “Mrs. Belmont Home for Suffrage War,” New York Times, September 16, 1910.
27. Finnegan, Selling Suffrage, 8; Susan A. Glenn, Female Spectacle: The Theatrical Roots of Modern Feminism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000), 129, 131–132; and Barbara Antoniazzi, The Wayward Woman (Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2014), 33–35.
28. A photograph of the parade can be found at the Library of Congress Prints & Photographs Online Catalog.
29. Einav Rabinovitch-Fox, “[Re]fashioning the New Woman: Women’s Dress, the Oriental Style, and the Construction of American Feminist Imagery in the 1910s,” Journal of Women’s History 27.2 (2015): 24–28.
30. “Beauty’s Vote,” Century Magazine, July 1915, 480.
31. “The Type of Suffragist Has Changed,” New-York Tribune, February 24, 1911, 7.
32. The New Negro Movement is usually associated with the cultural and literary expressions of the Harlem Renaissance as well as with the political and intellectual activism during the Great Migration. In recent years, scholars have expanded the understanding of the New Negro both geographically and thematically, pointing to other urban spaces such as Chicago and Detroit, as well as adopting a transnational perspective. These studies also underscore the connection between the commercial marketplace and modernity in constructing black identity. For further reading on the New Negro, see Baldwin, Chicago’s New Negroes; Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987); and Davarian L. Baldwin and Minkah Makalani, eds., Escape from New York: The New Negro Renaissance beyond Harlem (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2013).
33. Patterson, Beyond the Gibson Girl, 50–52, 56.
34. On the Great Migration, see Carole Marks, Farewell—We’re Good and Gone: The Great Black Migration (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989), 1–2; Daniel Johnson, Black Migration in America: A Social Demographic History (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1981), 78–79; Ann Douglas, Terrible Honesty: Mongrel Manhattan in the 1920s (New York: Noonday Press, 1995), 73–74; and Tera Hunter, To ‘Joy My Freedom: Southern Black Women’s Lives and Labors After the Civil War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997), 232–235.
35. Baldwin, Chicago’s New Negroes, 5–9, 14.
36. Erin Chapman, Prove It on Me: New Negroes, Sex and Popular Culture in the 1920s (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 6–9, 113.
37. Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, Righteous Discontent: The Women’s Movement in the Black Baptist Church, 1880–1920 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 185–192; Victoria Wolcott, Remaking Respectability: African American Women in Interwar Detroit (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 4–7, 18, 38; and Michele Mitchell, Righteous Propagation: African Americans and the Politics of Racial Destiny After Reconstruction (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 10. Although this notion of respectability was influenced to a large degree by middle-class African Americans’ adoption of white Victorian values of “True Womanhood,” Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham demonstrates that middle-class black women used “respectability” also as a political means to counteract white racial and gender perceptions of black femininity as sexually available and dangerous. By claiming “respectability” through their manners and morals, African American women exposed race relations as socially constructed rather than biologically determined.
38. “Exalting Negro Womanhood,” The Messenger, January 1924, 7; The Crisis in particular was known to put on its covers photos of beautiful women, babies, and small children as part of its racial uplift campaign. See, for example, covers for August 1922, July 1923, July 1924, and August 1924. Kathy Peiss, Hope in a Jar: The Making of America’s Beauty Culture (New York: Henry Holt, 1998), 213.
39. Deborah Gray White, Too Heavy a Load: Black Women in Defense of Themselves, 1894–1994 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1999), 21–23.
40. Jayna Brown, Babylon Girls: Black Women Performers and the Shaping of the Modern (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008), 227; Chapman, Prove It on Me, 81–82; and Baldwin, Chicago’s New Negroes, 62.
41. Davarian L. Baldwin, “From the Washtub to the World: Madam C. J. Walker and the ‘Re-creation’ of Race Womanhood, 1900–1935,” in The Modern Girl Around the World: Consumption, Modernity, and Globalization, eds. Alys Eve Veinbaum, et al. (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008), 57, 59, 61–62; and Peiss, Hope in a Jar, 213.
42. Andrea Barnet, All-Night Party (Chapel Hill, NC: Algonquin, 2004), 147–148, 151–152; and Carole Marks and Diana Edkins, The Power of Pride (New York: Crown Publishers, 1999), 66–67. While light skin and “light features” were usually paired to form an ideal of black beauty, people with dark skin and “light features” could also be counted as beautiful. Moreover, although the preference for lighter skin and features also contained some class component, in reality, many middle-class African Americans had dark skin and vice versa.
43. Shane White and Graham White, Stylin’: African American Expressive Culture from Its Beginnings to the Zoot Suit (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998), 245–246; and Hazel Carby, “Policing the Black Woman’s Body in an Urban Context,” Critical Inquiry 18.4 (Summer 1992): 741.
44. One of these prominent images that expanded the boundaries of respectability was that of the “bathing beauty”—a beauty contestant appearing in swimming suit—which became popular in the late 1920s. While the “bathing beauty” represented a more elaborate and sexual display of the black female body, she remained a respectable figure, demonstrating racial progress.
45. Chapman, Prove It on Me, 80; and White, Too Heavy a Load, 127–128.
46. Shane Vogel, The Scene of Harlem Cabaret: Race, Sexuality, Performance (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2009), 2–3, 12; and Hazel Carby, “‘It Jus Be’s Dat Way Sometime’: The Sexual Politics of Women’s Blues,” Radical America 20.4 (1986): 20.
47. Ethel Waters, His Eye Is on the Sparrow (New York, 1951), 142–145; lyrics appears in Carby, “’It Jus Be’s Dat Way Sometime’,” 19.
48. Carby, “Policing the Black Woman’s Body,” 753–755; Brown, Babylon Girls, 196–197; Susannah Walker, Style & Status: Selling Beauty to African American Women, 1920–1975 (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 2007), 70.
49. Chapman, Prove It on Me, 82, 105–107; and Marks and Edkins, The Power of Pride, 32.
50. Angela Davis, Blues Legacies and Black Feminism: Gertrude “Ma” Rainey, Bessie Smith and Billie Holliday (New York: Pantheon, 1998), 142–143, 154.
51. Joshua Zietz, Flapper: A Madcap Story of Sex, Style, Celebrity and the Women Who Made America Modern (New York: Crown Publishers, 2006), 8, 23; John D’Emilio and Estelle Freedman, Intimate Matters, 3d ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012), 229, 233–234, 256–257; and Kitch, The Girl on the Magazine Cover, 121.
52. Kitch, The Girl on the Magazine Cover, 121–122; and Angela Latham, Posing a Threat: Flappers, Chorus Girls and Other Brazen Performers of the American 1920s (Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press, 2000), 22. Scholars have understood modernity as a conceptual, esthetic, political, and social phenomenon related to processes of urbanization, industrialization, and technological developments in transportation and communication that occurred during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
53. Alfredo Panzini, “The Flapper—A New Type,” Vanity Fair, September 1921, 63.
54. Zeitz, Flapper, 156–158, Kitch, The Girl on the Magazine Cover, 130–131.
55. Richard Le Gallienne, “The Modern Girl and Why She’s Painted,” Vanity Fair, January 1924, 27–28.
56. Jill Fields, An Intimate Affair: Women, Lingerie, Sexuality (Berkley: University of California Press, 2007), 18–19; and Anne Hollander, Sex and Suits: The Evolution of Modern Fashion (New York: Kodansha, 1995), 145–147.
57. D’Emilio and Freedman, Intimate Matters, 256–257, 263–265; Zietz, Flapper, 33–35; Paula Fass, The Damned and the Beautiful: American Youth in the 1920s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), 218, 268–270; and Beth L. Baily, From Front Porch to Back Seat: Courtship in Twentieth-Century America (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1988), 19, 86–87.
58. D’Emilio and Freedman, Intimate Matters, 200–201, 241. Kathy Peiss’s study on working-class women in turn-of-the-century New York also locates the changes in morality in working-class dating cultures. Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusem*nts (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986).
59. Among ethnic immigrant communities, flappers’ appearance and lifestyle was often a source for inter-generational tensions between parents and daughters. Peiss, Cheap Amusem*nts, 67–72; Vicki L. Ruiz, “The Flapper and the Chaperon” in From Out of the Shadows: Mexican Women in Twentieth-Century America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 54–56; “Courting Danger in the Automobile,” Literary Digest, July 5, 1924, 35; “Is the Young Generation in Peril?” Literary Digest, May 14, 1921, 10; “The Case Against the Younger Generation,” Literary Digest, June 17, 1922, 38, 42; Barton W. Currie, “Eliminate Flapperism, Male and Female,” Ladies’ Home Journal, October 1922, 30; and G. Stanley Hall, “Flapper Americana Novissima,” Atlantic Monthly, June 1922, 771–780.
60. Christina Simmons, Making Marriage Modern: Women’s Sexuality from the Progressive Era to World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 142–143, 145–147; and Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, Disorderly Conduct (New York: Knopf, 1985), 74, 266, 281–282.
61. The Modern Girl Around the World Research Group, “The Modern Girl as Heuristic Device” 12, and Alys Eve Weinbaum, “Racial Masquerade: Consumption and Contestation of American Modernity,” 121, both in Weinbaum et al., eds., The Modern Girl Around the World: Consumption, Modernity and Globalization (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008); Penny Tinkler and Cheryl Krasnik Warsh, “Feminine Modernity in Interwar Britain and North America,” Journal of Women’s History 20.3 (Fall 2008): 113–115; and Fass, The Damned and the Beautiful, 230, 258, 291–326.
62. Martin Pumphrey, “The Flapper, The Housewife, and the Making of Modernity,” Cultural Studies 1.2 (1987): 186. Fitzgerald and his wife, Zelda, an Alabama debutante who was identified as “America’s first flapper,” had an important role in popularizing the flapper as a young, slender, sexual woman. For more on Fitzgerald and his role in immortalizing the flapper, see Zeitz, Flapper, 39–49, 63. See also Sarah Beebe Fryer, Fitzgerald’s New Women: Harbingers of Change (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1988), 1–18. Elinor Glyn’s famous story “It” was adapted as a Hollywood movie in 1927, featuring Clara Bow as a young salesgirl flapper.
63. On the global aspects of the Modern Girl, see Weinbaum et al., The Modern Girl Around the World.
64. “Fashion’s Effect on Business,” Literary Digest, February 25, 1928, 18; Franklin S. Clark, “Who Sets Fashions—and How?” Review of Reviews (January 1930), 56; and Mary Alden Hopkins, “Women’s Rebellion Against Fashions,” New Republic, August 16, 1922, 332.
65. “Two Types of Beauty from Two States,” Baltimore Afro-American, May 14, 1927, 12; “The Girl of Today,” Pittsburgh Courier, April 17, 1926, 16; “African Girl Like Flapper of America,” Chicago Defender, May 30, 1925, A1; “A Nifty Bunch of Damsels . . . ,” Inter-State Tattler, June 29, 1928; and “New York Daily Uses Pretty Picture of Some Harlem Bobbed Hair Beauties,” Pittsburgh Courier, December 18, 1926.
66. “Display Many Styles at Fashion Show,” Chicago Defender, October 13, 1928.
67. Dorothy Ilone Embry, “Leader of Harlem Sub-Debs Defends ‘Virtue’ of Modern Girl,” Pittsburgh Courier, July 2, 1927, 12.
68. Ruiz, “The Flapper and the Chaperon,” 54–56; Valerie J. Matsumoto, City Girls: The Nisei Social World in Los Angeles, 1920–1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 60–62; and Judy Yung, Unbound Feet: A Social History of Chinese Women in San Francisco (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 115–116, 122–125.
69. Cott, Grounding of Modern Feminism, 172–174; and Fields, An Intimate Affair, 90–92.
70. Pumphrey, “The Flapper, The Housewife and the Making of Modernity,” 183; Estelle B. Freedman, “The New Woman: Changing Views of Women in the 1920s,” Journal of American History 61.2 (September 1974): 373; and Emily Newell Blair, “Discouraged Feminists” Outlook, July 8, 1931, 302–303, 318–319; and “The New Woman—A Symposium,” Current History (October 1927): 1–48.
71. Ann Devon, “Will Women Wear Them?” Outlook, November 6, 1929, 372.
72. P. K Crocker, “Mass Representation of Style Seen as Artistic Expression of the Age,” Women’s Wear Daily, January 7, 1928, 3. On the idea of consumption as a form of citizenship for women in the 1920s, see Charles McGovern, Sold American: Consumption and Citizenship, 1890–1945 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006).
73. Lucie R. Sayler, “Long Skirts?” The Nation, October 9, 1929, 384.
74. Mary Alden Hopkins, “Do Women Dress for Men?” Delineator, July 1921, 3; Dorothy Dunbar Bromley, “Feminist—New Style,” Harper’s Magazine, October 1927, 552–560; and Mildred Adams, “Did They Know What They Wanted?” Outlook, December 8, 1927), 528–530, 544.
75. Nancy Cott, Grounding of Modern Feminism; June Schoen, The New Woman: Feminism in Greenwich Village, 1910–1920 (New York: Quadrangle Books, 1972); Jean Matthews, The Rise of the New Woman: The Woman’s Movement in America, 1875–1930 (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2003); Rosalind Rosenberg, Beyond Separate Spheres: Intellectual Roots of Modern Feminism (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982); Lynn Dumenil, The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s (New York: Hill and Wang, 1995); and Marjorie Spruill Wheeler, New Women of the New South: The Leaders of the Woman Suffrage Movement in the Southern States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).
76. Ellen Wiley Todd, The “New Woman” Revised: Painting and Gender Politics on Fourteenth Street (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); Christine Stansell, American Moderns (New York: Owl Books, 2000); and Martha H. Patterson, Beyond the Gibson Girl: Reimagining the American New Woman, 1895–1915 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2005).
77. Martha Banta, Imaging American Women: Ideas and Ideals in Cultural History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987); and Kitch, The Girl on the Magazine Cover; Patricia Marks, Bicycles, Bangs, and Bloomers: The New Woman in the Popular Press (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1990).
78. Zietz, Flapper; Kenneth A. Yellis, “Prosperity Child: Some Thoughts on the Flapper,” American Quarterly 21.1 (Spring 1969): 46–49; and Pumphrey, “The Flapper, The Housewife, and the Making of Modernity”; Latham, Posing a Threat.
79. Cott, “The Modern Woman of the 1920s, American Style,” A History of Women in the West, Vol. 5, Toward a Cultural History in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994), 67–91; Rayna Rapp and Ellen Ross, “Feminism, Consumerism, and Political Backlash in the United States,” in Women in Culture and Politics: A Century of Change, ed. Judith Friedlander (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986), 52–61; and Freedman, “The New Woman.” Although Freedman questions the paradigm that sees the 1920s as the demise of feminism, arguing that historical accounts of the flapper are too often based on stereotypes than evidence, she herself does not give attention to the political aspects of the image.
80. Notable exceptions are Finnegan, Selling Suffrage, and Enstad, Ladies of Labor.
81. Peiss, Cheap Amusem*nts; Orleck, Common Sense and Little Fire; and Enstad, Ladies of Labor.
82. Charlotte Rich, Transcending the New Woman: Multiethnic Narratives in the Progressive Era (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2009); and Patterson, Beyond the Gibson Girl.
83. White, Too Heavy A Load; Victoria Wolcott, Remaking Respectability; Paula Giddings, When and Where I Enter: The Impact of Black Women on Race and Sex in America (New York: Morrow, 1984); Hazel V. Carby, Reconstructing Womanhood: The Emergence of the Afro- American Woman Novelist (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); Treva Lindsey, “Climbing the Hilltop: In Search of a New Negro Womanhood at Howard University,” in Escape from New York: The New Negro Renaissance Beyond Harlem, eds., Davarian L. Baldwin and Minkah Makalani, (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2013), 271–290; and Sharon Harley, Rosalyn Terborg-Penn, and Dorothy Porter, eds., The Afro-American Woman: Struggles and Images (Baltimore: Black Classic Press, 1999). There are also biographies on specific African American women that trace their role as New Negro Women. See, for example, Mary Jo Deegan, ed., The New Woman of Color: The Collected Writings of Fannie Barrier Williams, 1893–1918 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2002).
84. Baldwin, Chicago’s New Negroes; Caroline Goeser, Picturing the New Negro: Harlem Renaissance Print Culture and Modern Black Identity (Lawrence: Kansas University Press, 2007); David Krasner, A Beautiful Pageant: African American Theatre, Drama and Performance in the Harlem Renaissance (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002). Despite these works, however, most studies still view the New Negro movement, and especially the Harlem Renaissance as a masculine phenomenon. See, for example, David Levering Lewis, When Harlem Was in Vogue (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981); and Douglas, Terrible Honesty; and Martin Summers, Manliness and its Discontents: The Black Middle Class and the Transformation of Masculinity (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004).
85. Notable exceptions are Chapman, Prove It on Me, and Cherene Sherrard-Johnson, Portraits of the New Negro Woman: Visual and Literary Culture in the Harlem Renaissance (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2007). Cheryl A. Wall’s Women of the Harlem Renaissance (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995) also acknowledges the role of women in the Harlem Renaissance, but overall sees it as a literary movement, not as a broad cultural phenomenon.
86. Treva Lindsey’s Colored No More: Reinventing Black Womanhood in Washington, D.C (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2017) is an important contribution that considers the New Negro Woman as a longer phenomenon.
87. Ruiz, “The Flapper and the Chaperon”; Matsumoto, City Girls; and Yung, Unbound Feet.
88. For great examples that examine the New Woman from a comparative transnational perspective, see Weinbaum et al., The Modern Girl Around the World; Ann Heilmann and Margaret Beetham, eds., New Woman Hybridities: Femininity, Feminism, and International Consumer Culture, 1880–1930 (London: Routledge, 2004); and Elizabeth Otto and Vanessa Rocco, eds., The New Woman International: Representations in Photography and Film from the 1870s to the 1960s (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2011).
89. Lucy Delap’s The Feminist Avant-Garde: Transatlantic Encounters of the Early Twentieth Century (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2007) is one of the only examples that analyzes the political New Woman from a trans-Atlantic perspective. Non-American national case studies usually focus on the flapper and the commercial and cultural aspects of the New Woman. See, for example, Mary Louise Roberts, Civilization Without Sexes: Reconstructing Gender in Postwar France, 1917–1927 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994); Brigitte Soland, Becoming Modern: Young Women and the Reconstruction of Womanhood in the 1920s (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000); Liz Conor, The Spectacular Modern Woman: Feminine Visibility in the 1920s, (Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2004); and Jane Nicholas, The Modern Girl: Feminine Modernities, the Body, and Commodities in the 1920s (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2015).
90. Fiona I. B. Ngo, Imperial Blues: Geographies of Race and Sex in Jazz Age New York (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2014); and Jennifer M. Wilks, “Black Modernist Women at the Parisian Crossroads” in Escape from New York: The New Negro Renaissance Beyond Harlem, eds. Davarian L. Baldwin and Minkah Makalani (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2013), 227–245.
91. Patterson, The American New Woman Revisited; and Marianne Berger Woods, The New Woman in Print and Pictures: An Annotated Bibliography (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2009).
92. Venetria K. Patton and Maureen Honey, eds., Double-Take: A Revisionist Harlem Renaissance Anthology (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2001).
